Fernfliegerkräfte
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Die Fernfliegerkräfte (russisch Дальняя авиация, Dalnjaja awiazija, kurz DA) waren Bestandteil der Luftstreitkräfte der Sowjetunion und sind seit deren Auflösung im Bestand der russischen Luftstreitkräfte. Die Fernflieger sind mit strategischen Bombern ausgerüstet.
Geschichte
Zu Beginn des deutschen Überfalls auf die Sowjetunion verfügten die Fernfliegerkräfte über 1.346 Flugzeuge, davon 86 % Iljuschin DB-3 und 14 % Tupolew TB-3. Organisiert waren sie in 4 Fernfliegerkorps, bestehend aus 9 Divisionen welche 29 Regimenter umfassten.[1]
Die am 26. Januar 1940 eingeführte Dienstvorschrift über die Bombenfliegerkräfte bestimmte als Hauptaufgabe der Fernfliegerkräfte „die militärisch-ökonomische Macht des Gegners zu untergraben“. Als vorrangige Ziele galten zentrale Objekte der Kriegswirtschaft, Energie- und Rohstoffbasen, das Transportsystem sowie Versorgungszentren. Diese Konzeption konnte jedoch 1941 hauptsächlich durch das Fehlen eines modernen in Serie hergestellten Fernbombers nur zu einem sehr geringen Teil erfüllt werden.[2]
In den ersten 18 Tagen des Krieges flogen die sowjetischen Fernflieger stattdessen, mit 2.112 Einsätzen, 95 % ihrer Einsätze gegen Panzer und motorisierte Kolonnen und den Rest auf Ziele 100 bis 150 Kilometer im deutschen Hinterland. Die Angriffe führten zu schweren Verlusten, so dass am 3. Juli 1941 das sowjetische Oberkommando den Einsatz noch bei Nacht und in großen Höhen erlaubte. Am 10. Juli wurden sie den Frontfliegerkräften zugeordnet und wirkten entgegen ihrer ursprünglichen Bestimmung nur noch als Fernartillerie der sowjetischen Streitkräfte.[3]
Ab 14. Juli erfolgten Angriffe auf das Erdölgebiet Ploiești, welche ab 1. August 1941 auch mit Sweno-Gespannen geflogen wurden.
Am 5. März 1942 wurden sie als Awiazija dalnjewo deistwija (Авиация дальнего действия), kurz ADD, neu organisiert. Ab Dezember 1944 operierten sie als 18. Luftarmee (18-я воздушная армия), bis sie 1946 ihre endgültige Bezeichnung erhielten.[4]
Vom 30. Mai 1942 bis 9. Juni 1942 wurden entlang der ganzen Front massierte Einsätze gegen 50 deutsche Flugplätze geflogen.[5]
Im August/September 1942 flogen die Fernfliegerkräfte Luftangriffe auf Berlin um der Goebbelspropaganda entgegenzuwirken, der Krieg im Osten sei nahezu beendet, und zur Stärkung der Moral der eigenen Bevölkerung.[6]
Am 30. April 1943 wurden sie in 8 Fernfliegerkorps mit 11 selbständigen Fernfliegerdivisionen umgegliedert. Diese verfügten über 700 Bombenflugzeuge der Typen Iljuschin Il-4, Petljakow Pe-2, Tupolew Tu-2 und Petljakow Pe-8.[7]
Im Vorfeld der Schlacht um Kursk wurden ab März 1943 10.000 Einsätze gegen Eisenbahnknotenpunkte geflogen.[8] Bei diesen nächtlichen Einsätzen wurden die mit recht primitiven Navigationsgeräten ausgerüsteten Bomber oft durch Leuchtfeuer von sowjetischen Partisanen gelenkt.[9]
1944 erfolgten erstmals 2 geschlossene und selbstständige Operationen der Fernfliegerkräfte. Im Februar wurde Helsinki und im September Budapest bombardiert, um den Kriegsaustritt dieser Länder zu beschleunigen.[10]
Insgesamt wurden 7.000 Einsätze zur Versorgung von Partisanen geflogen (inklusive der Unterstützung der Volksbefreiungsarmee unter Josip Broz Tito und des Slowakischen Nationalaufstands).[11]
Im gesamten Krieg erfolgten lediglich 3,1 % aller Einsätze gegen das Hinterland Deutschlands. Dabei wurden in 7158 Einsätzen 6700 Tonnen abgeworfen.[12]
Die schwerste von der Sowjetunion im Zweiten Weltkrieg eingesetzte Bombe war die FAB-5000.
Kommandeur ist seit 2016 Generalleutnant Sergei Kobylasch.[13]
Ausrüstung
Ende 2014 besaßen die Fernfliegerkräfte nach russischen Angaben:[14][15]
- 16 Tupolew Tu-160 (sechs weitere sollen 2015 in Dienst gestellt werden)
- 55 Tupolew Tu-95
- Tupolew Tu-22M3
- Iljuschin Il-78 (Tankflugzeuge)
Siehe auch
- Strategic Air Command der USA
Weblinks
Einzelnachweise
- ↑ Olaf Groehler: Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland. Berlin 1990, S. 164.
- ↑ Groehler: Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland. S. 163.
- ↑ Groehler: Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland. S. 164 f.
- ↑ Wilfried Kopenhagen: Lexikon Sowjetluftfahrt. Elbe–Dnjepr, Klitzschen 2007, ISBN 978-3-933395-90-0, S. 23
- ↑ Groehler: Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland. S. 166.
- ↑ Groehler: Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland. S. 166.
- ↑ Groehler: Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland. S. 167.
- ↑ Groehler: Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland. S. 167.
- ↑ Christer Bergström: Kursk – The Air Battle: July 1943. Hersham 2007, S. 18.
- ↑ Groehler: Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland. S. 169 f.
- ↑ Raymond L. Garthoff: Die Sowjetarmee. Wesen und Lehre. Köln 1955. S. 454 f.
- ↑ Groehler: Bombenkrieg gegen Deutschland. S. 170.
- ↑ Сергей Кобылаш назначен командующим Дальней авиацией ВКС России. Abgerufen am 19. August 2018 (russisch).
- ↑ Russische Luftwaffe kauft weitere Langstreckenbomber. In: Rossija Sewodnja
- ↑ Russian strategic nuclear forces. In: russianforces.org
Auf dieser Seite verwendete Medien
Autor/Urheber: Dmitry Terekhov from Odintsovo, Russian Federation, Lizenz: CC BY-SA 2.0
The Tupolev Tu-95 (Russian: Туполев Ту–95) (NATO reporting name: Bear) is a large, four-engine turboprop powered strategic bomber and missile platform.
First flown in 1952, the Tu-95 was put into service by the former Soviet Union in 1956 and is expected to serve the Russian Air Force until at least 2040.[1].
Commonly referred to even in Russia by its NATO designation, "Bear"[2], the aircraft has four Kuznetsov NK-12 engines, each driving contra-rotating propellers. It remains the fastest propeller-driven aircraft in history (a bigger, heavier, passenger version Tu-114 with de-rated engines, holds the FAI certified world speed record at 541.23 mph average speed on a 1000 km closed circuit carrying a load equivalent to only 200kg short of the weight of three Douglas DC-3's. Some experimental aircraft were designed for theoretically higher speeds, but none attained or registered them.) It also remains the only turboprop-powered strategic bomber in operational use. Its distinctively swept-back wings are at 35 degrees, a very sharp angle by the standards of propeller-driven aircraft, and justified by its operating speeds and altitudes.
A naval development of the bomber is designated Tu-142.
The design bureau led by Andrei Tupolev designed the Soviet Union's first intercontinental bomber, the 1949 Tu-85, a scaled up version of the Tu-4, a B-29 Superfortress copy. The Tu-4 was deemed to be inadequate against the new generation of American all-weather interceptors.
A new requirement was issued to both Tupolev and Myasishchev design bureaus in 1950: the proposed bomber had to have an un-refueled range of 8000 km (4,970 mi) — far enough to threaten key targets in the United States. Other goals included the ability to carry an 11,000 kg (12 ton) load over the target.
The big problem for Tupolev was the engine choice: the Tu-4 showed that piston engines were not powerful enough to fulfill that role, while the fuel-hungry AM-3 jet engines of the proposed T-4 intercontinental jet bomber did not provide adequate range.[3] Turboprops offered more power than piston engines and better range than jets, with a top speed in between.
Tupolev's proposal was selected and Tu-95 development was officially approved by the government on 11 July, 1951. It featured four Kuznetsov, [4] coupled turboprops fitted with eight-bladed contra-rotating propellers, producing a nominal 8,948 kW (12,000 eshp) power rating. Unlike the advanced engine design, the fuselage was conventional: a high-wing cantilever monoplane with 35 degrees of sweep, an angle which ensured the main wing spar passed through the fuselage in front of the bomb bay. Retractable tricycle landing gear was fitted, with all three gear strut units retracting rearwards, with the main gear units retracting rearwards into extensions of the inner engine nacelles. The Tu-95/I, with 2TV-2F engines, first flew November 11, 1952 with test-pilot Alexey Perelet at the controls, but suffered a propeller gearbox failure and crashed.[5] The second aircraft, Tu-95/II featured four of the 12,000 ehp Kuznetsov NK-12 turboprops which proved more reliable than the coupled 2TV-2F. After a successful flight testing phase, series production of the Tu-95 started in January 1956.[4]
For a long time, the Tu-95 was known to U.S./NATO intelligence as the Tu-20. While this was the original Soviet Air Force designation for the aircraft, by the time it was being supplied to operational units it was already better known under the Tu-95 designation used internally by Tupolev, and the Tu-20 designation quickly fell out of use in the USSR. Since the Tu-20 designation was used on many documents acquired by U.S. intelligence agents, the name continued to be used outside the Soviet Union.
Initially the United States Department of Defense did not take the Tu-95 seriously, as estimates showed it had a maximum speed of 644 km/h (400 mph) with a range of 12,500 km (7,800 mi).[6] These numbers had to be revised upward numerous times.
Like its American counterpart, the B-52 Stratofortress, the Tu-95 has continued to operate in the Russian Air Force while several subsequent iterations of bomber design have come and gone. Part of the reason for this longevity was its suitability, like the B-52, for modification to different missions. Whereas the Tu-95 was originally intended to drop free-falling nuclear weapons, it was subsequently modified to perform a wide range of roles, such as the deployment of cruise missiles, maritime patrol (Tu-142), and even civilian airliner (Tu-114). An AWACS platform (Tu-126) was developed from the Tu-114. During and after the Cold War, the Tu-95's utility as a weapons platform has been eclipsed only by its usefulness as a diplomatic icon.
Designed as a stopgap in case the Tu-114A was not finished on time, two Tu-95 bombers were fitted with passenger compartments. Both aircraft had the same layout: a 3-seat VIP section with office space, and the rest of the 70 m³ cabin configured as a normal airliner. Both planes were eventually used as crew ferries by the various Tu-95 squadrons. One of these machines is preserved at Ulyanovsk Central Airport.
* Tu-95/1 - The first prototype powered by Kuznetsov 2TV-2F coupled turboprop engines, crashed on its first flight. * Tu-95/2 - The second prototype powered by Kuznetsov NK-12 turboprops. * Tu-95/Tu-95M - Basic variant of the long-range strategic bomber and the only model of the aircraft never fitted with a nose refuelling probe. Known to NATO as the Bear-A. * Tu-95K - Experimental version for air-dropping a MiG-19 SM-20 jet aircraft. * Tu-95K22 - Conversions of the older Bear bombers, reconfigured to carry the Raduga Kh-22 missile and incorporating modern avionics. Known to NATO as the Bear-G. * Tu-95K/Tu-95KD - Designed to carry the Raduga Kh-20 air-to-surface missile. The Tu-95KD aircraft were the first to be outfitted with nose probes. Known to NATO as the Bear-B. * Tu-95KM - Modified and upgraded versions of the Tu-95K, most notable for their enhanced reconnaissance systems. These were in turn converted into the Bear G configuration. Known to NATO as the Bear-C. * Tu-95M-55 - Missile carrier. * Tu-95MR - Bear A modified for photo-reconnaissance and produced for Naval Aviation. Known to NATO as the Bear-E. * Tu-95MS/Tu-95MS6/Tu-95MS16 - Completely new cruise missile carrier platform based on the Tu-142 airframe. This variant became the launch platform of the Raduga Kh-55 cruise missile. Known to NATO as the Bear-H and was referred to by the U.S. military as a Tu-142 for some time in the 1980s before its true designation became known. * Tu-95N - Experimental version for air-dropping an RS ramjet powered aircraft. * Tu-95RTs - Razvedchik Tseleukazatel - Variant of the basic Bear A configuration, redesigned for maritime reconnaissance and targeting as well as electronic intelligence for service in the Soviet Naval Aviation. Known to NATO as the Bear-D. * Tu-95U Uchebnyy - Trainer - Training variant, modified from surviving Bear A's but now all have been retired. Known to NATO as the Bear-T. * Tu-96 - long-range intercontinental high-altitude strategic bomber prototype, a high-altitude version of the Tupolev Tu-95 aircraft with high-altitude augmented turboprop TV-16 engines and with a new,enlarged area wing. Plant tests of the aircraft were performed with non-high altitude TV-12 engines in 1955–1956.[12] * Tu-114 - Airliner derivative of Tu-95. * Tu-116 - Tu-95 fitted with passenger cabins as a stop-gap while the Tu-114 was being developed. Only two converted.[13] * Tu-95LaL (Tu-119) - Experimental nuclear-powered aircraft project. * Tu-126 - AEW&C derivative of Tu-114, itself derived from the Tu-95. * Tu-142 - Maritime reconnaissance/anti-submarine warfare derivative of Tu-95.
Several other modification of the basic Tu-95/Tu-142 airframe have existed, but these were largely unrecognized by Western intelligence or else never reached operational status within the Soviet military. One of these modified Bears, known as the Tu-95V, was used to drop the Tsar Bomba.
General characteristics
* Crew: 10[15] * Length: 46.2 m [15] (151 ft 6 in [15]) * Wingspan: 50.10 m[15] (164 ft 5 in[15]) * Height: 12.12 m (39 ft 9 in) * Wing area: 310 m² (3,330 ft²) * Empty weight: 90,000 kg (198,000 lb) * Loaded weight: 171,000 kg (376,200 lb) * Max takeoff weight: 188,000 kg (414,500 lb) * Powerplant: 4× Kuznetsov NK-12M turboprops, 11,000 kW (14,800 shp)[16] each
Performance
* Maximum speed: 920 km/h (510 knots, 575 mph) * Range: 15,000 km (8,100 nmi, 9,400 mi) unrefueled * Service ceiling: 13,716 m (45,000 ft) * Rate of climb: 10 m/s (2,000 ft/min) * Wing loading: 606 kg/m² (124 lb/ft²) * Power/mass: 235 W/kg (0.143 hp/lb)
Armament
* Radar-controlled Guns: 1 or 2 × 23 mm AM-23 autocannon in tail turret.* Missiles: Up to 15,000 kg (33,000 lb), including the Raduga Kh-20, Kh-22, Kh-26, and Kh-55 air-to-surface missiles.
A U.S. Navy Grumman F-14A Tomcat of Fighter Squadron VF-114 Aardvarks flying alongside a Soviet Tupolev Tu-95RT Bear D maritime patrol aircraft. VF-114 was assigned to Carrier Air Wing Eleven (CVW-11) aboard the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CVN-65) for a deployment to the Western Pacific and the Indian Ocean from 1 September 1982 to 28 April 1983.
Catalog #: 15_002207 Title: Tupolev TB-7 (Ant-42, Pe-8) Date: 1942 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Leuchars, Scottland Collection: Charles M. Daniels Collection Photo Album Name: Soviet Aircraft Page #: 3 Tags: Soviet Aircraft, Charles Daniels, tupolev
PUBLIC COMMONS.SOURCE INSTITUTION: San Diego Air and Space Museum ArchiveAutor/Urheber: Dmitry Terekhov from Odintsovo, Russian Federation, Lizenz: CC BY-SA 2.0
The Tupolev Tu-95 (Russian: Туполев Ту–95) (NATO reporting name: Bear) is a large, four-engine turboprop powered strategic bomber and missile platform.
First flown in 1952, the Tu-95 was put into service by the former Soviet Union in 1956 and is expected to serve the Russian Air Force until at least 2040.[1].
Commonly referred to even in Russia by its NATO designation, "Bear"[2], the aircraft has four Kuznetsov NK-12 engines, each driving contra-rotating propellers. It remains the fastest propeller-driven aircraft in history (a bigger, heavier, passenger version Tu-114 with de-rated engines, holds the FAI certified world speed record at 541.23 mph average speed on a 1000 km closed circuit carrying a load equivalent to only 200kg short of the weight of three Douglas DC-3's. Some experimental aircraft were designed for theoretically higher speeds, but none attained or registered them.) It also remains the only turboprop-powered strategic bomber in operational use. Its distinctively swept-back wings are at 35 degrees, a very sharp angle by the standards of propeller-driven aircraft, and justified by its operating speeds and altitudes.
A naval development of the bomber is designated Tu-142.
The design bureau led by Andrei Tupolev designed the Soviet Union's first intercontinental bomber, the 1949 Tu-85, a scaled up version of the Tu-4, a B-29 Superfortress copy. The Tu-4 was deemed to be inadequate against the new generation of American all-weather interceptors.
A new requirement was issued to both Tupolev and Myasishchev design bureaus in 1950: the proposed bomber had to have an un-refueled range of 8000 km (4,970 mi) — far enough to threaten key targets in the United States. Other goals included the ability to carry an 11,000 kg (12 ton) load over the target.
The big problem for Tupolev was the engine choice: the Tu-4 showed that piston engines were not powerful enough to fulfill that role, while the fuel-hungry AM-3 jet engines of the proposed T-4 intercontinental jet bomber did not provide adequate range.[3] Turboprops offered more power than piston engines and better range than jets, with a top speed in between.
Tupolev's proposal was selected and Tu-95 development was officially approved by the government on 11 July, 1951. It featured four Kuznetsov, [4] coupled turboprops fitted with eight-bladed contra-rotating propellers, producing a nominal 8,948 kW (12,000 eshp) power rating. Unlike the advanced engine design, the fuselage was conventional: a high-wing cantilever monoplane with 35 degrees of sweep, an angle which ensured the main wing spar passed through the fuselage in front of the bomb bay. Retractable tricycle landing gear was fitted, with all three gear strut units retracting rearwards, with the main gear units retracting rearwards into extensions of the inner engine nacelles. The Tu-95/I, with 2TV-2F engines, first flew November 11, 1952 with test-pilot Alexey Perelet at the controls, but suffered a propeller gearbox failure and crashed.[5] The second aircraft, Tu-95/II featured four of the 12,000 ehp Kuznetsov NK-12 turboprops which proved more reliable than the coupled 2TV-2F. After a successful flight testing phase, series production of the Tu-95 started in January 1956.[4]
For a long time, the Tu-95 was known to U.S./NATO intelligence as the Tu-20. While this was the original Soviet Air Force designation for the aircraft, by the time it was being supplied to operational units it was already better known under the Tu-95 designation used internally by Tupolev, and the Tu-20 designation quickly fell out of use in the USSR. Since the Tu-20 designation was used on many documents acquired by U.S. intelligence agents, the name continued to be used outside the Soviet Union.
Initially the United States Department of Defense did not take the Tu-95 seriously, as estimates showed it had a maximum speed of 644 km/h (400 mph) with a range of 12,500 km (7,800 mi).[6] These numbers had to be revised upward numerous times.
Like its American counterpart, the B-52 Stratofortress, the Tu-95 has continued to operate in the Russian Air Force while several subsequent iterations of bomber design have come and gone. Part of the reason for this longevity was its suitability, like the B-52, for modification to different missions. Whereas the Tu-95 was originally intended to drop free-falling nuclear weapons, it was subsequently modified to perform a wide range of roles, such as the deployment of cruise missiles, maritime patrol (Tu-142), and even civilian airliner (Tu-114). An AWACS platform (Tu-126) was developed from the Tu-114. During and after the Cold War, the Tu-95's utility as a weapons platform has been eclipsed only by its usefulness as a diplomatic icon.
Designed as a stopgap in case the Tu-114A was not finished on time, two Tu-95 bombers were fitted with passenger compartments. Both aircraft had the same layout: a 3-seat VIP section with office space, and the rest of the 70 m³ cabin configured as a normal airliner. Both planes were eventually used as crew ferries by the various Tu-95 squadrons. One of these machines is preserved at Ulyanovsk Central Airport.
* Tu-95/1 - The first prototype powered by Kuznetsov 2TV-2F coupled turboprop engines, crashed on its first flight. * Tu-95/2 - The second prototype powered by Kuznetsov NK-12 turboprops. * Tu-95/Tu-95M - Basic variant of the long-range strategic bomber and the only model of the aircraft never fitted with a nose refuelling probe. Known to NATO as the Bear-A. * Tu-95K - Experimental version for air-dropping a MiG-19 SM-20 jet aircraft. * Tu-95K22 - Conversions of the older Bear bombers, reconfigured to carry the Raduga Kh-22 missile and incorporating modern avionics. Known to NATO as the Bear-G. * Tu-95K/Tu-95KD - Designed to carry the Raduga Kh-20 air-to-surface missile. The Tu-95KD aircraft were the first to be outfitted with nose probes. Known to NATO as the Bear-B. * Tu-95KM - Modified and upgraded versions of the Tu-95K, most notable for their enhanced reconnaissance systems. These were in turn converted into the Bear G configuration. Known to NATO as the Bear-C. * Tu-95M-55 - Missile carrier. * Tu-95MR - Bear A modified for photo-reconnaissance and produced for Naval Aviation. Known to NATO as the Bear-E. * Tu-95MS/Tu-95MS6/Tu-95MS16 - Completely new cruise missile carrier platform based on the Tu-142 airframe. This variant became the launch platform of the Raduga Kh-55 cruise missile. Known to NATO as the Bear-H and was referred to by the U.S. military as a Tu-142 for some time in the 1980s before its true designation became known. * Tu-95N - Experimental version for air-dropping an RS ramjet powered aircraft. * Tu-95RTs - Razvedchik Tseleukazatel - Variant of the basic Bear A configuration, redesigned for maritime reconnaissance and targeting as well as electronic intelligence for service in the Soviet Naval Aviation. Known to NATO as the Bear-D. * Tu-95U Uchebnyy - Trainer - Training variant, modified from surviving Bear A's but now all have been retired. Known to NATO as the Bear-T. * Tu-96 - long-range intercontinental high-altitude strategic bomber prototype, a high-altitude version of the Tupolev Tu-95 aircraft with high-altitude augmented turboprop TV-16 engines and with a new,enlarged area wing. Plant tests of the aircraft were performed with non-high altitude TV-12 engines in 1955–1956.[12] * Tu-114 - Airliner derivative of Tu-95. * Tu-116 - Tu-95 fitted with passenger cabins as a stop-gap while the Tu-114 was being developed. Only two converted.[13] * Tu-95LaL (Tu-119) - Experimental nuclear-powered aircraft project. * Tu-126 - AEW&C derivative of Tu-114, itself derived from the Tu-95. * Tu-142 - Maritime reconnaissance/anti-submarine warfare derivative of Tu-95.
Several other modification of the basic Tu-95/Tu-142 airframe have existed, but these were largely unrecognized by Western intelligence or else never reached operational status within the Soviet military. One of these modified Bears, known as the Tu-95V, was used to drop the Tsar Bomba.
General characteristics
* Crew: 10[15] * Length: 46.2 m [15] (151 ft 6 in [15]) * Wingspan: 50.10 m[15] (164 ft 5 in[15]) * Height: 12.12 m (39 ft 9 in) * Wing area: 310 m² (3,330 ft²) * Empty weight: 90,000 kg (198,000 lb) * Loaded weight: 171,000 kg (376,200 lb) * Max takeoff weight: 188,000 kg (414,500 lb) * Powerplant: 4× Kuznetsov NK-12M turboprops, 11,000 kW (14,800 shp)[16] each
Performance
* Maximum speed: 920 km/h (510 knots, 575 mph) * Range: 15,000 km (8,100 nmi, 9,400 mi) unrefueled * Service ceiling: 13,716 m (45,000 ft) * Rate of climb: 10 m/s (2,000 ft/min) * Wing loading: 606 kg/m² (124 lb/ft²) * Power/mass: 235 W/kg (0.143 hp/lb)
Armament
* Radar-controlled Guns: 1 or 2 × 23 mm AM-23 autocannon in tail turret.* Missiles: Up to 15,000 kg (33,000 lb), including the Raduga Kh-20, Kh-22, Kh-26, and Kh-55 air-to-surface missiles.
Autor/Urheber: